The CIES Football Observatory ranked 251 clubs worldwide by the change in value of non-academy players signed since 2022.
How the ranking was calculated
The CIES Football Observatory said the ranking compares fees paid with fees received for players who have since left and with the current market value of players still at the club.
Atalanta and Roma's positions
Atalanta were 10th in the world with a gain of €354m, while Roma were joint 13th on €323m, almost all of it, €291m, from players still under contract.
Udinese, Bologna and Inter
Udinese had a gain of €252m, while Bologna and Inter each had a gain of €236m.
Other club figures
Fiorentina were 236th with an overall loss of €27m and were down €51m on players they had already sold, despite €569m spent and received in transfers. Milan's total gain was €69m, while their current signings were worth €20m less than Milan paid for them. Napoli were 63rd on €128m, while Juventus were €85m down on players already sold.
